Living Inorganic Nanomaterials: Design, Preparation, and Biomedical Applications

Living inorganic nanomaterials are defined as inorganic nanostructures that are integrated with living bacteria, cells, or biologically active cell-derived components. This unique integration addresses key limitations of traditional inorganic nanomaterials in biomedical applications, including poor biocompatibility and limited ability to cross physiological barriers. This review outlines the developmental trajectory of bioactive inorganic nanomaterials, focusing on their evolution from passive carriers to life-integrated therapeutic platforms. From biomacromolecule-conjugated nanoparticles to nanozymes, culminating in living inorganic nanomaterials, we highlight the design of living cell- and bacteria-conjugated inorganic nanomaterials for drug delivery, diagnosis, and therapy. We discuss the clinical translation and artificial intelligence-aided design of bioactive inorganic nanomaterials. We also discuss the translational challenges and opportunities of living inorganic nanomaterials as a new generation of intelligent biomedical tools.