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A schema is a mental framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information. Schemata, formed from previous experiences, influence how we process new information: how we encode it, the inferences we make, and how we retrieve it. For instance, a schema for what a typical classroom looks like might include desks, a teacher's desk, a whiteboard, and students in such an environment. This expectation helps us quickly understand and navigate new classrooms without needing to analyze each...

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Predictions and declarative memory encoding: two fMRI paradigms provide slim pickings for SLIMM.

Petar P Raykov¹, Kshipra Gurunandan¹, Mahtab Moniri¹

¹MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

|July 9, 2026

Summary

Memory recall is enhanced for both expected and unexpected information, forming a U-shaped curve. However, the study did not find specific brain region activity supporting this memory-expectancy relationship.

Keywords:

MPFC SLIMM expectancy hippocampus memory prediction

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Neuroscience
Neuroimaging

Background:

Memory performance exhibits a U-shaped relationship with expectancy.
The SLIMM framework proposes distinct roles for the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) in memory for unexpected and expected information, respectively.

Purpose of the Study:

To test the SLIMM framework's predictions regarding the neural basis of the expectancy-memory U-shaped curve.
To investigate the roles of the hippocampus and MPFC in encoding expected versus unexpected information.

Main Methods:

Two functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies were conducted.
Participants encoded object locations in scenes and idiom word completions, varying in expectancy.
fMRI data were analyzed for activation in hippocampal and MPFC regions of interest.

Main Results:

Both paradigms successfully replicated the U-shaped relationship between expectancy and memory performance.
No significant interaction between expectancy and subsequent memory was found in hippocampal or MPFC activation during encoding.

Conclusions:

The findings challenge the specific predictions of the SLIMM framework regarding distinct hippocampal and MPFC roles in the expectancy-memory U-shape.
Further research is needed to understand the neural mechanisms underlying memory for expected and unexpected information.