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Observing the Transformation of Bodily Self-consciousness in the Squeeze-machine Experiment
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Observing ideologies. A systems-theoretical approach.

Kristoffer Klement1

  • 1Faculty of Sociology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.

Frontiers in Sociology
|July 9, 2026
PubMed
Summary

This study uses Luhmann's systems theory to define ideology for empirical research. Ideologies are viewed as social constructions serving instructive, expressive, and reflexive functions within systems.

Keywords:
Niklas Luhmannconstructivismfunctional analysisideologyreflexivitysecond-order observationsystems theory

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Area of Science:

  • Sociology
  • Social Theory
  • Ideology Research

Background:

  • Luhmann's systems theory offers a robust framework for understanding complex social phenomena.
  • Existing approaches to ideology research often lack clear conceptual distinctions for empirical analysis.
  • The need for a systems-theoretical perspective to operationalize ideology research is evident.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To derive a systems-theoretical concept of ideology from Niklas Luhmann's works.
  • To establish sociological foundations for the empirical operationalization of ideology.
  • To clarify the distinction between ideology and non-ideology for guiding empirical studies.

Main Methods:

  • Conceptual analysis of Niklas Luhmann's systems theory.
  • Addressing two core research questions: 'What do we observe when observing ideologies?' and 'How do we observe ideologies when observing them?'.
  • Analysis of the functions of ideological meaning structures within systems operations, focusing on second-order observations.

Main Results:

  • Ideologies are conceptualized as social constructions of objectively given structures and operations.
  • Identified instructive, expressive, and reflexive functions of ideological meaning structures.
  • Demonstrated that ideologies lack strict boundaries, are often controversial, and can be found in unexpected areas.

Conclusions:

  • Luhmann's systems theory provides a valuable framework for a nuanced understanding of ideology.
  • The derived concept facilitates empirical research by offering clear operational guidelines.
  • Future research should explore the diverse manifestations and functions of ideologies as social constructions.