Plasticiser exposure assessment in E-waste recycling workers linking passive samplers and urinary biomonitoring

Dismantling activities in e-waste recycling facilities release significant amounts of hazardous chemicals, including phthalates, alternative plasticisers, and organophosphate esters (OPEs), which represent a relevant source of occupational exposure. This study applied an integrated approach combining passive polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sampling and human biomonitoring via urinary metabolites to characterise workers' exposure. Parent compounds from all three additive families (n = 31) and their respective metabolites (n = 34) were detected in the PDMS pendants and urine samples, confirming continuous exposure to complex chemical mixtures. Phthalates exhibited the highest concentrations in pendants (median = 461 ng/cm²), followed by OPEs (152 ng/cm²), and alternative plasticisers (33.5 ng/cm²). In contrast, estimated daily intakes (EDIs) derived from urinary biomarkers were dominated by alternative plasticisers (median EDI = 8719 ng/kg bw·day), with DEHA being the predominant contributor (median EDI =7751 ng/kg bw·day). Phthalates emerged as the second main contributor to urinary EDIs (median EDI = 3447 ng/kg bw·day), whereas OPEs showed substantially lower values (median = 78.3 ng/kg bw·day). Both exposure assessment strategies revealed significant qualitative and quantitative correlations, with some compounds presenting an effect estimate coefficient (β) of up to 0.586, highlighting that e-waste dismantling activities are relevant contributors to the total daily intake. Despite elevated exposure levels compared to those in the general population, no health risks were identified.