Scalable fabrication of high-performance organic solar cell modules: from materials to manufacturing

Organic solar cells (OSCs) have emerged as a promising next-generation photovoltaic technology due to their low cost, mechanical flexibility, design versatility, and eco-friendly processing. With power conversion efficiencies of small-area devices exceeding 21%, significant efforts have been directed toward the development of large-area modules for practical applications. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress in large-area organic solar modules, focusing on three key aspects: low-cost materials, morphology control strategies, and scalable fabrication processes. Low-cost material design, including simplified molecular structures and non-fused ring acceptors, enables reduced synthesis complexity while maintaining high efficiency. Effective morphology regulation via molecular engineering, additive selection, and green solvent systems facilitates uniform film formation and optimized phase separation. Furthermore, large-area coating techniques such as blade coating, slot-die coating, and roll-to-roll printing, combined with advanced annealing and laser patterning, have significantly improved large-area organic solar module performance and consistency. Key challenges including material cost, morphological instability, and process reproducibility are critically discussed. Future perspectives on high-throughput material screening, AI-assisted molecular design, and industrial-scale integration are also presented, aiming to accelerate the commercialization of large-area OSCs.