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Ultrasound-Assisted NADES-Based Extraction of Spirulina Bioactives: Bioaccessibility and Intestinal Permeability
Gamze Toydemir1, Ilayda Sanli2, Gulay Ozkan2
1Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Alanya, Antalya, Türkiye.
Journal of Food Science
|July 17, 2026
Summary
Ultrasound-assisted extraction using natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) effectively recovers Spirulina antioxidants. Kefir enhances the in vitro bioaccessibility of these antioxidants, suggesting its potential as a functional food ingredient.
Area of Science:
- Food Science and Technology
- Natural Product Chemistry
- Microalgae Biotechnology
Background:
- Spirulina is a rich source of antioxidants and pigments.
- Efficient extraction and enhanced bioaccessibility of Spirulina bioactives are crucial for functional food applications.
- Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) offer a sustainable alternative for extracting bioactive compounds.
Purpose of the Study:
- To evaluate ultrasound-assisted extraction of Spirulina antioxidants using various NADES formulations.
- To assess the bioaccessibility and apparent basolateral recovery of phenolics from Spirulina extracts.
- To investigate the role of kefir as a carrier matrix for improving the gastrointestinal utilization of Spirulina antioxidants.
Main Methods:
- Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) with eight NADES formulations.
- In vitro digestion model simulating gastrointestinal conditions.
- Caco-2 cell model to evaluate apparent basolateral recovery of antioxidants.
- Analysis of pigment content, total phenolic content (TPC), and antioxidant capacity.
Main Results:
- Glucose:glycerol NADES yielded the highest pigment and TPC; betaine:glycerol and choline chloride:citric acid showed the highest antioxidant capacity.
- Spirulina-fortified kefir exhibited significantly reduced TPCs but increased apparent in vitro bioaccessibility of phenolics (up to 355%).
- Kefir incorporation led to higher apparent basolateral recovery of antioxidants in the Caco-2 cell model for some formulations.
Conclusions:
- UAE with NADES is effective for recovering Spirulina antioxidants.
- Kefir acts as a promising carrier matrix, enhancing the apparent gastrointestinal utilization of Spirulina bioactives.
- This approach supports the development of value-added functional foods and beverages incorporating microalgae.
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