Reinventing Ginkgo biloba therapeutics through nanoparticles: Mechanisms, applications, and translational...

Ginkgo biloba is one of the most extensively investigated medicinal plants, renowned for its rich repertoire of flavonoids, terpene trilactones, biflavonoids, and phenolic compounds that exhibit neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. Despite compelling preclinical and clinical evidence, the therapeutic translation of G. biloba phytoconstituents remains constrained by poor aqueous solubility, low oral bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and limited target specificity. Advances in nanotechnology have emerged as a transformative strategy to overcome these pharmacokinetic and formulation barriers. This review provides a comprehensive and critical appraisal of nanotechnology-enabled delivery systems developed for G. biloba extracts and isolated phytochemicals, including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based carriers, nanosuspensions, metallic nanoparticles, and hybrid or biomimetic nanoplatforms. Emphasis is placed on their design principles, preparation methods, physicochemical characteristics, and therapeutic advantages across neurological, cardiovascular, oncological, and wound-healing applications. Furthermore, mechanistic insights into cellular uptake, blood-brain barrier penetration, controlled release behavior, and modulation of key signaling pathways such as Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK are discussed. By integrating formulation science with molecular pharmacology, this review highlights the translational potential of G. biloba-based nanomedicines and outlines current challenges, regulatory considerations, and future directions toward clinical advancement.