Neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and cognitive fatigue in motor learning: A systematic review

Fatigue is multifactorial and task-dependent, arising from the interplay between performance and perceived fatigability. Fatigue-related changes in sensorimotor control and neural activity may alter skill acquisition and retention.

To synthesize behavioral and neurophysiological evidence on how cognitive, cardiovascular, local neuromuscular, and mixed fatigue influence motor-skill acquisition, retention, and transfer.

A systematic search was conducted within PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase. Thirty-eight articles, corresponding to 43 extracted experiments, met inclusion criteria. Data were extracted on fatigue protocol, learning taxonomy, learning stage, retention/transfer context, fatigue asssessment, and neurophysiology. Methodological quality was appraised with a modified Downs and Black checklist.

During acquisition, 28 of 43 experiments (65.1%) showed detrimental effects, 4 (9.3%) showed facilitatory effects, 7 (16.3%) showed neutral effects, and 4 (9.3%) were mixed or inconclusive. Retention after recovery and retention under sustained or renewed fatigue were assessed in 36 and 7 experiments, respectively. Retention findings were variable and depended on fatigue modality, task demands, and testing context. Neurophysiological measures were scarce, being included in only six experiments, and sex-specific analyses or other participant-level moderators were rarely examined.

Fatigue does not uniformly impair motor learning. Local neuromuscular fatigue appears most likely to disrupt acquisition and sometimes retention, whereas cardiovascular exertion may support learning or consolidation in some contexts when acute fatigue has partly recovered. Evidence for cognitive fatigue remains limited and inconsistent. Future work should use standardized fatigue assessment, longer retention windows, state-matched testing, and integrated neurophysiology to clarify mechanisms and guide training under fatigue.