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When Thinking Is Outsourced: Cognitive Offloading and the Heterogeneity of Critical Thinking Among Chinese University
Shuai Si1, Yong Qi1, Jingming Xu1
1Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China.
Journal of Intelligence
|July 27, 2026
Summary
Generative artificial intelligence (GAI) use impacts student critical thinking differently. Deeper engagement paradoxically increased dependence, highlighting the need for metacognitive training over technical skills for effective cognitive offloading.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Psychology
- Educational Technology
- Artificial Intelligence Ethics
Background:
- Generative artificial intelligence (GAI) facilitates cognitive offloading, but its effect on critical thinking development is under-researched.
- Existing theories of cognitive offloading and distributed cognition provide a framework for understanding human-AI collaboration.
- The heterogeneity of critical thinking outcomes among GAI users necessitates an examination of different collaboration patterns.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate how different human-AI collaboration patterns influence critical thinking gains and cognitive autonomy relinquishment in Chinese university students using GAI.
- To identify distinct user profiles based on GAI usage and collaboration styles.
- To explore predictors of critical thinking development and cognitive autonomy in the context of GAI use.
Main Methods:
- A questionnaire survey was administered to 353 university students in China.
- Cluster analysis was used to identify distinct GAI user profiles.
- Regression analysis examined predictors of critical thinking gains and cognitive autonomy relinquishment.
Main Results:
- Four user profiles emerged, from "simple Q&A users" to "critical co-thinkers".
- Learning motivation strongly predicted critical thinking gains and lower cognitive autonomy relinquishment.
- Deeper GAI offloading positively predicted cognitive autonomy relinquishment, indicating a dependence paradox, with a "high depth-high dependence" subgroup identified.
Conclusions:
- Sophisticated GAI use does not automatically guarantee cognitive benefits and can paradoxically increase dependence.
- Educational interventions should focus on metacognitive training to foster critical thinking alongside GAI use.
- Understanding user profiles and promoting mindful GAI collaboration is crucial for enhancing, not undermining, critical thinking skills.
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