Biochemical Pathways of Neuroplasticity in Sport Skill Acquisition: From Neuroscience to Coaching Practice

Motor skill acquisition is the foundation of athletic performance, from the novice learning a new technique to the elite athlete executing complex movements automatically under pressure. Although classical models have defined the neural substrates of motor control-the cerebellum for error correction, the basal ganglia for action selection, and the primary motor cortex (M1) for execution-emerging evidence suggests that motor learning is the result of the dynamic interaction of multiple parallel processes rather than a linear hierarchy. This narrative review integrates classical neuroanatomical knowledge with contemporary findings on multisite plasticity, with a particular focus on sport-specific adaptations.

We examined three core learning mechanisms operating in parallel: error-based learning (cerebellar-dependent, driven by sensory prediction errors), reinforcement learning (striatal-dependent, driven by reward prediction errors and dopamine), and use-dependent learning (cortical-dependent, driven by mere repetition). We also summarize the biochemical pathways supporting these learning processes, including glutamatergic LTP-like cortical plasticity, cerebellar mGluR1-PKC-LTD signaling, dopaminergic corticostriatal plasticity, BDNF-TrkB-dependent neurotrophic mechanisms, growth-factor signaling, and exercise-induced muscle-brain communication.

We then propose a spatiotemporal model in which the relative contribution of each network shifts dynamically across the three stages of skill acquisition, from the early cognitive/strategic phase to the late automatic phase characteristic of elite performance. At the molecular level, these stage-dependent adaptations are supported by synaptic strengthening and weakening mechanisms, reward-dependent dopamine signaling, neurotrophic and growth-factor-mediated remodeling, and peripheral metabolic/myokine signals that modulate brain plasticity during training and recovery. Special attention is given to contextual and sport-specific adaptations, using the paradigmatic example of elite swimmers who demonstrate enhanced short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) selectively in the aquatic environment, reflecting long-term sport-induced neuroplasticity.

Understanding these dynamic network mechanisms has direct implications for coaching, training periodization, and the development of targeted neuromodulatory interventions to accelerate skill acquisition and optimize athletic performance.