The arousal-space metaphor: evidence from spatial mapping in a 3D volumetric environment

Spatial metaphors linking valence to physical location have been extensively documented. However, valence and arousal co-vary systematically, leaving open whether previously reported vertical-space effects reflect valence, arousal, or both. The present work addresses this question by having participants place Czech affective adjectives in a three-dimensional virtual space. Stimuli were selected to orthogonally represent valence and arousal, minimising their natural correlation. Across three studies, we examined spontaneous spatial placement (Studies 1-2) and perceptual validation of adjective location (Study 3). Linear mixed-effects models revealed that both valence and arousal independently predicted vertical placement (Y-axis), with positive valence and high arousal associated with higher positions. Valence consistently predicted depth placement (Z-axis), with positive adjectives placed closer to the body, consistent with approach-avoidance frameworks. No consistent effects emerged on the horizontal axis. Study 3 confirmed perceptual validity: congruent valence-arousal combinations produced the strongest agreement judgments (OR = 122.41 for positive, high-arousal adjectives placed high), whereas incongruent combinations produced uncertainty about correct placement. These findings demonstrate that arousal is an independent contributor to vertical spatial-affective mapping - a dimension largely overlooked due to its natural covariation with valence - while valence governs depth placement consistent with approach-avoidance frameworks.