M13 phage-based antigen presentation and immune response activation in vaccine development for animal infectious...

Phage display technology has emerged as a versatile platform for vaccine development by integrating antigen presentation with intrinsic immunostimulatory properties. Among the available phage systems, the filamentous bacteriophage M13 has attracted considerable attention because of its structural versatility, genetic programmability, and capacity for diverse antigen display strategies. Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of M13-based vaccines to induce robust humoral and cellular immune responses against a broad spectrum of animal viral, bacterial, and parasitic pathogens. This review critically summarizes current advances in M13 phage-based vaccine development, with particular emphasis on structural characteristics, antigen display strategies, immune mechanisms, and representative veterinary applications. In addition, we discuss key challenges associated with commercial translation, including scalable manufacturing, quality control, formulation stability, and future development. By integrating recent progress with remaining challenges, this review provides an updated perspective on the rational design and translational development of next-generation M13 phage-based veterinary vaccines.