Is the Urban-Rural Divide Affectively Polarised? Comparative Evidence from Nine European Countries

Recent studies in the United States and Europe have documented a growing divergence in voting behaviour and political attitudes between cities and the countryside. However, we still lack systematic evidence on the extent to which this urban-rural divide is also affectively polarised. To shed light on this, we advance the concept of place-based affective polarisation, which we define as the difference between in-group and out-group affect in relation to place-based groups. Drawing on original survey data from nine European countries, we show that place-based affective polarisation is substantial along the urban-rural divide and associated with strong feelings of place-based resentment and identity. Furthermore, we find that higher levels of place-based affective polarisation correlate with support for GAL parties (green, alternative, libertarian) among urbanites and support for TAN parties (traditional, authoritarian, nationalist) among ruralites. Overall, our findings point to a strong political cleavage between urban and rural areas in several European countries.