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Control of Breathing

Richard L Horner1

  • 1Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, 3206 Medical Sciences Building, 1 Kings College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, 3206 Medical Sciences Building, 1 Kings College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada.

Sleep Medicine Clinics
|August 7, 2026
PubMed

Keywords:
ApneaArousalChemoreceptorHypercapniaHypoxiaRespiratory muscleRespiratory neuronsSleep disorders

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The body maintains ventilation by monitoring levels of carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and hydrogen ion concentration (pH) in the arterial blood. Among these factors, the level of CO2 plays a crucial...
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The neurogenic control of respiration coordinates various neural networks and pathways to regulate breathing rate and depth, meeting the body's oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange requirements. This system adapts to physiological and environmental conditions, ensuring optimal breathing patterns.
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Neural Control of Respiration

The neural regulation of respiration is a meticulously coordinated process primarily controlled by the respiratory centers located within the brainstem. These centers, composed of specialized neurons, transmit nerve impulses that control the contraction and relaxation of our respiratory muscles.
Respiratory Centers in the Brainstem
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Breathing is primarily an involuntary activity regulated by the brainstem respiratory centers. However, it can also be consciously controlled, allowing us to hold our breath or take deeper breaths when needed. This voluntary control is facilitated by the cerebral motor cortex, which bypasses the medullary centers to stimulate the respiratory muscles directly.
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Mechanism of Breathing II: Expiration

The Physiology of Expiration: A Seamless Respiratory Process
Expiration, or exhaling, is a complex physiological process that begins as the inspiratory muscles begin to relax. This relaxation triggers a series of events that epitomize the efficiency of the respiratory system.
Mechanism of Expiration:
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Chemical Factors Affecting Respiration Centers

Chemical factors such as changing CO2, O2, and H+ levels in arterial blood play a critical role in influencing respiration depth and rates. These variations are detected by chemoreceptors—specialized sensors located in two primary body areas. Central chemoreceptors are found throughout the brain stem, including the ventrolateral medulla, while peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the aortic arch and carotid arteries.
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