Lead Management in Perovskite Photovoltaics: Status and Perspectives

The rapid advances of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) urgently demand effective lead management throughout the device lifecycle, given the risks posed by lead toxicity to human health and ecosystems, originating from lead-halide perovskite absorbers. The establishment of a comprehensive lead-management framework is a critical pathway toward enabling PSCs to fulfill their potential as an environmentally sustainable photovoltaic technology. Recent years have witnessed remarkable progress in lead containment approaches through various strategies targeting perovskite absorbers, grain boundaries, device interfaces, external encapsulation, and end-of-life device recycling. These advancements have been enabled by innovative material design, processing techniques, device engineering, and eco-friendly recycling methods. In this review, we survey recent advances in lead leakage mitigation, with a focus on fundamental mechanisms of lead adsorption, immobilization, and sequestration. We also provide critical assessments of lead recycling technologies by analyzing the efficiency, scalability, and environmental footprint of current methodologies. Finally, we outline key challenges and future research directions for achieving sustainable lead management in perovskite PVs.