Empowering microbes with natural armor: encapsulation strategies for agri-food and biotech innovations

Encapsulation enables microbial technologies across agriculture, biotechnology, and biomedicine by protecting microorganisms from environmental and process-related stresses while extending their functional performance. Natural materials, including polysaccharides such as alginate and chitosan, and biomineral nanoparticles, are emerging as key enablers of encapsulation performance, while supporting sustainability, scalability, and industrial implementation. In this review, we analyze recent advances in natural polymer- and biomineral-based encapsulation systems, focusing on how material selection, encapsulation architecture, and microbial metabolism shape engineered microenvironments. We further discuss how encapsulation becomes technologically and environmentally relevant only when functional gains justify material and processing costs. Finally, we argue for a conceptual shift in encapsulation strategies: from protective supports toward bioinspired microhabitats and living microcapsules capable of programmable microbial functions.