Spaces that move children: The role of the physical environment in developing motor competence and physical literacy

The significant relationship between attributes of the physical environment of schools and residential neighborhoods with children's physical activity (PA) has been well documented in the literature. However, there is a lack of research investigating the relationship between the characteristics of physical environment and motor competence (MC) as well as physical literacy (PL). This study explores how the physical environmental factors in schools and residential neighborhoods moderate the relationship between PA, MC and perceived PL (PPL) in children. A model-based tree approach was applied to a sample of 396 school-aged children (51.5% girls; mean age = 10.3 ± 5.8 years) to examine specific environmental features and their potential to moderate the associations between PA and MC, as well as PA and PPL. Environmental characteristics were assessed using both an audit tool and a questionnaire. PA and PPL were measured via self-reported questionnaires, while MC was evaluated through a standardized physical performance test. The findings revealed that the school sports/play facilities, aesthetics and PA policies, alongside neighborhood recreational facilities, significantly amplify the strength of the above-mentioned relationships. Specifically, the positive association between PA and MC was strongest in schools with better facilities and high aesthetic scores (slope b = 2.07 vs. b = 0.86 in lower-quality settings). Similarly, the relationship between PA and PPL was most pronounced when supportive school policies and greater availability of neighborhood recreational infrastructure were both present (b = 0.40 vs. b = 0.24). The model-based trees outperformed traditional regression models by providing higher predictive accuracy (improving Pearson correlation by r = 0.06-0.09) and offered a nuanced view of how place-based factors interact to affect children's development. The findings emphasize the importance of designing equitable school and neighborhood environments to support children's motor skills, and selected dimensions of PL, as well as their engagement in PA.