Non-nutritive sweeteners in hand-shaken beverages: Occurrence, consumption patterns, and dietary risk assessment

Hand-shaken beverages (HSBs), commonly known as bubble tea, are rapidly expanding globally and are increasingly consumed as on-site-prepared drinks with customizable sweetness. While added sugars in HSBs have raised public health concerns, the occurrence and dietary exposure of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) in these beverages remain poorly characterized due to limited ingredient disclosure. In this study, we systematically investigated the occurrence, co-occurrence, dietary exposure, and risk characterization of NNS in commonly consumed HSBs, using Taiwan-the origin of HSBs-as a case study. A total of 189 HSB samples were analyzed using a validated LC-MS/MS method targeting eight NNS. Five NNS were detected, with sucralose and acesulfame potassium showing the highest occurrence and concentrations, particularly in juice/fruit tea products and beverages containing toppings. Population-level HSB consumption data were collected via a food frequency questionnaire and integrated with analytically measured NNS concentrations using probabilistic exposure modeling. Estimated dietary exposures varied substantially by beverage category and consumer subgroup; however, cumulative exposure levels remained well below acceptable daily intake thresholds. Risk characterization indicated that the combined hazard index for NNS exposure via HSB consumption was consistently below 5% of health-based guidance values, suggesting minimal toxicological concern under current consumption patterns. Despite the low estimated risk, the heterogeneous distribution of NNS across beverage types and formulations highlights critical gaps in ingredient transparency for on-site-prepared beverages. These findings underscore the importance of continued monitoring and refined exposure assessment frameworks to support evidence-based food safety regulation and informed consumer choice in rapidly evolving beverage markets.