Spatial disorientation and countermeasure training for next-generation aircraft: a review and recommendations

Spatial disorientation (SD) is the most common cause of human error in military aircraft incident reports over the last few decades. Vestibular SD typically occurs when the vestibular (balance) system cannot distinguish between acceleration from gravity and from the aircraft. Current and next-generation fighter aircraft (e.g., F-35) expose pilots to unprecedented acceleration forces, possibly amplifying SD frequency and severity. Therefore, research investigating SD and countermeasures in modern fighter aircraft is becoming increasingly important. The main objective of this review paper was to assess modern technologies that can be used in counter-SD training and provide directions for future research on SD training. To accomplish this objective, we reviewed a total of 118 books, technical reports, and scientific papers to examine the current state of knowledge in SD and countermeasures used in military aviation. Past literature mostly focused on the subjective pilot experience without considering the human sensory system as the root cause. In addition, studies investigating modern technologies (e.g., virtual reality head-mounted display) in SD countermeasure training were limited. In this review, we define and evaluate the common SD illusions and their causes based on the available scientific literature. Then, we examine successful contemporary SD countermeasure training methods and tools currently used. Finally, we provide recommendations for future SD research focusing on vestibular SD countermeasure training given recent technological advancements covered. Our recommendations include the exploration of various combinations of artificial vestibular stimulation, virtual reality, and centrifuge as viable SD training methods. We also provide potential solutions to evaluate SD countermeasures effectively and objectively.