Comparative Physicochemical, Structural, Thermal, and Rheological Analyses of Lemon By-Product Pectin: Hot...

Pectin is a naturally occurring biopolymer extensively used for applications in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and food industries, and is abundantly present in lemon by-products. Although lemon peels represent a highly promising raw material, the structure of pectin is strongly influenced by extraction and drying processes, and the resulting attributes remain insufficiently understood. The present study systematically investigates the impact of conventional hot acid extraction using three different acidifying agents (citric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric) in combination with two drying techniques (oven-drying and freeze-drying) on the physicochemical, structural, thermal, and viscosity-shear rate properties of pectin obtained from lemon by-products (Citrus limon, Portuguese Eureka variety) following the prior recovery of bioactive compounds (essential oils and phenolic compounds). The results demonstrated that citric acid extraction followed by freeze-drying yielded the highest pectin recovery, at approximately 26.7%, highlighting the suitability of this approach for efficient by-product valorisation. Oven-dried pectins exhibited higher moisture contents (8.5-10%) and lower lightness values (L* = 57.02-65.67), indicating darker colouration compared to freeze-dried pectins (L* = 78.82-83.75). All extracted pectins presented a degree of esterification (DE ≥ 50%), classifying them as high-methoxyl pectins. The galacturonic acid (GalA) content ranged from 37.6 to 48.9% for oven-dried samples and increased to 44.1-58.6% for freeze-dried samples. Furthermore, pectin obtained from lemon by-products exhibited a well-defined structural organisation and enhanced thermal stability, especially for freeze-dried pectin samples, and suitable rheological properties, with no statistically significant variations observed between different acids or drying conditions, supporting its technological suitability for applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.