Immunogenic cell death in CNS diseases: From bench to bedside

The central nervous system (CNS) harbors a distinct immune memory programming system, wherein immunogenic cell death (ICD) acts as a pivotal signaling hub. A spectrum of insults, from systemic metabolic dysfunction to local protein aggregation and ionic dyshomeostasis, can provoke ICD in neurons, glia, and resident immune cells. This process orchestrates the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) from distinct subcellular compartments. These DAMPs synergistically initiate both innate trained immunity (TI), characterized by profound metabolic-epigenetic reprogramming, and antigen-specific adaptive immune responses that traverse the blood-brain barrier. Together, these pathways constitute an integral network of central immune surveillance. Crucially, this ICD-driven immune programming exhibits a striking functional dichotomy depending on the pathological context. In non-neoplastic conditions such as neural injury and neurodegenerative diseases, uncontrolled ICD signaling can establish a pathological trained immune memory, driving a self-perpetuating cycle of chronic neuroinflammation and tissue damage. Conversely, within the tumor microenvironment of malignancies like glioma, the adaptive immune responses elicited by ICD are frequently subverted by potent immunosuppressive mechanisms, culminating in tumor immune escape. This review dissects the differential regulatory mechanisms of ICD-mediated immune memory in CNS tumors versus non-tumor diseases. We aim to elucidate the molecular switches that govern the transition of this immune program from a beneficial, compensatory state to a pathological, detrimental phenotype. By exploring emerging therapeutic strategies, including gene editing, nanomaterials, and bioactive phytochemicals that precisely target ICD pathways, we provide a theoretical framework for understanding CNS immune homeostasis and for the rational design of precision immunotherapies.