Unveiling Particulate Matter-Lung Interactions from Static Models to Dynamic Lung-on-Chips

The pervasive inhalable particulate matter (PM) in the environment poses a marked threat to pulmonary health. However, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain poorly understood, largely due to the limitations of existing in vitro models in accurately mimicking the complex biological processes. This review critically examines the spectrum of in vitro models employed in PM research, spanning from traditional 2-dimensional models to advanced 3-dimensional (3D) constructs, including 3D bioprinted models and organoids, as well as the burgeoning field of lung-on-chips (LOCs). Each model type is meticulously assessed for its unique strengths and the challenges. A particular emphasis is placed on the innovative use of LOCs technology to replicate the dynamic nature of respiratory motion. The review delves into how integrating breath-mimicking stimuli can modulate the intricate interactions between PM and cellular/tissue interfaces. Ultimately, it unveils an innovative, highly integrated, and intelligent LOCs platform, offering a forward-looking insight into its evolution.