Three common environmental mycotoxins: An update on their neurotoxicities and action mechanisms

Environmental mycotoxins, secondary metabolites produced by fungi, contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to animal and human health. Among them, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), T-2 toxin (T-2), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are three of the most prevalent and neurotoxic mycotoxins, widely detected in grains and feed products. While individual toxicities of AFB1, T-2, and DON have been extensively studied, the research on their combined exposure is limited. The potential synergistic, antagonistic, or additive neurotoxic effects of these toxins remain unclear, and their underlying mechanisms, especially with regard to impacts on neural cells, signaling pathways, and overall neurological function, are not fully elucidated. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the neurotoxicity of AFB1, T-2, and DON, highlighting their individual and combined effects on the central and peripheral nervous systems. Moreover, we discuss their shared mechanisms of action, including oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disruption of neurochemical balance, as well as evidence from in vivo and in vitro studies across species including humans, livestock, rodents and aquaculture animals. The findings aim to provide a scientific basis for establishing joint safety limits for these toxins in food and feed, developing targeted detoxification strategies, and mitigating risks to livestock production, food safety, animal performance, and human health. This work underscores the importance of evaluating the neurological health risks of co-exposure to AFB1, T-2, and DON, offering insights for future risk assessment and regulatory frameworks.