Vitrification of bovine oocytes and embryos: roadmaps to cryopreservation success

Cryopreservation of bovine oocytes and in vitro produced (IVP) embryos represents a central tool for the global distribution of genetic material and the efficient application of assisted reproductive technologies. Although vitrification has become the preferred alternative to slow freezing because it avoids ice crystal formation, consistent and reproducible results are still difficult to achieve, especially in oocytes. Most vitrification protocols have traditionally been developed through empirical "trial and error" approaches, with limited consideration of the biological and biophysical factors that determine cryosurvival. Current progress, however, points toward a more rational framework based on membrane permeability, osmotic tolerance, cryoprotectant (CPA) toxicity, and mathematical modeling. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of vitrification in bovine oocytes and IVP embryos by integrating biological, biophysical, and practical perspectives. It analyzes the cellular factors that limit cryotolerance and the advances in rational protocol design based on the quantitative analysis of membrane permeability and osmotic tolerance. The use of mathematical modeling, including temperature-dependent permeability data, has enabled the optimization of equilibration steps and reduced variability among laboratories. Moreover, strategies to mitigate cryodamage are discussed as promising but still inconsistent approaches. Technical improvements, including blastocoel collapse before vitrification and simplified warming systems for direct transfer, have also been evaluated for their potential to facilitate field application. Although vitrification remains biologically superior to slow freezing in terms of cryosurvival, its large‑scale implementation is limited by handling complexity and the lack of standardized direct‑transfer systems. Future progress in bovine cryopreservation will depend on combining enhanced cellular competence with biophysical optimization and standardized, reproducible procedures that can ensure not only improved post‑warming survival but also consistent pregnancy and calving outcomes in real production environments.