Engineering and materials perspective on wearable electrochemical biosensors for elite athletes: interfacial design...

Real-time biochemical monitoring is shifting elite sports from retrospective assessment toward continuous precision health management. From an industrial and engineering chemistry perspective, this review focuses on interfacial engineering and electrochemical transduction in wearable biosensors for elite athletes. We discuss how advanced nanomaterials, including carbon-based hybrids, conductive polymers, and metal-organic frameworks, improve charge transfer, enzyme immobilization, catalytic activity, and operational stability. Engineering strategies for microfluidic sampling are highlighted, particularly bioinspired structures, such as cactus-inspired microchannels, that regulate sweat transport dynamics and ensure continuous analyte delivery. We further examine key challenges for industrial translation, including scalable 3D printing, antifouling coatings for long-term stability, flexible-substrate integration, and device-level system assembly. By integrating mass-transport optimization with multimodal data fusion, this review outlines an engineering roadmap for next-generation high-precision sports-medicine sensing platforms.