Lead carboxylates passivation for meter-scale perovskite solar modules

Environmentally sensitive ammonium halides have emerged as indispensable surface passivators for perovskite solar cells, demonstrating broadly effective performance at the laboratory scale^1-4. However, the sensitivity of ammonium halides to humidity typically necessitates operation under an inert atmosphere⁵. Coupled with the heterogeneous distribution of passivators during large‑area slot‑die coating, applying such surface treatment techniques to the fabrication of meter‑scale perovskite solar modules under ambient conditions remains challenging. Here, we instead employ chemically stable lead carboxylates as passivators on perovskite films engineered to have a naturally-formed formamidinium iodide-enriched surface via a high-saturation vapor pressure solvent system (2-methoxyethanol, 1,3-dioxolane, and dimethyl sulfoxide). By treating tailored surface with lead dioleate to enhance carrier transport and surface passivation, we fabricated perovskite solar modules that achieved certified efficiencies of 24.0% (aperture area of 810 cm²) and 22.0% (total area of 0.72 m²) and passed all IEC 61215 reliability tests. These results represent the highest reported performance for scalable, industrially viable perovskite photovoltaics.