Three-Dimensional Scaffolds for Bone, Soft Tissue, and Periodontal Regeneration

The oral cavity presents three distinct regenerative challenges: restoration of alveolar bone volume and stability, augmentation of soft mucogingival tissues, and regeneration of the tooth-supporting periodontium. In each of these clinical contexts, conventional approaches remain limited by the morbidity associated with autologous tissue harvesting and by the difficulty in predictably reconstructing the complex architecture and functional integration required for the long-term stability of these distinct tissues. Although currently available biomaterials have demonstrated clinical effectiveness, many provide limited spatial control and tissue-specific functionality, which may constrain their capacity to support coordinated regeneration of complex oral tissues. Recent advances in manufacturing technologies have enabled the development of highly precise three-dimensional scaffold systems with tailored porosity, chemistry, architecture, and degradation profiles. This review examines recent progress in three-dimensional scaffold technologies for bone, soft tissue, and periodontal regeneration. Conventional and emerging engineered scaffold systems are critically appraised to illustrate how advances in material science, scaffold architecture, fabrication technologies, and biological functionalisation are shaping contemporary regenerative strategies. Despite these advances, important challenges remain before scaffold-based therapies can consistently achieve predictable clinical outcomes across all indications. Future research should focus on optimising scaffold design, strengthening biological performance, and generating robust clinical evidence to support routine clinical implementation and improve long-term outcomes.