Impacting Fuelling Dynamics Towards Tunable Liquid Metal Machine

Self-propelled liquid metal-aluminium hybrid machines represent a promising class of autonomous motion systems capable of sustained movement without external power sources. While interactions between machines and their environment inevitably occur, the fundamental question of how spatial confinement affects the motion dynamics and the controllability of speed, direction and lifetime of such liquid metal machines (LMMs) remains underexplored. Understanding these confined dynamics is essential for practical applications. Here, we present a comprehensive investigation of the non-symmetrical fuelling principle governing the direction-tuning effect in LMMs. By confining LMMs within one-dimensional semi-open channels, we thoroughly disclose their impact and turning dynamics with different end obstacles throughout their lifecycle, with particular focus on fuel region morphological evolution, overall motion and local flow characteristics after reaction times exceeding one hour. Utilising ultra-high-speed imaging techniques, we systematically clarify how fuel region evolution and end-obstacle interactions influence symmetry-breaking mechanisms and reciprocating dynamics. Our findings reveal complex interactions between material properties, charge transfer processes and fluid dynamics during end-turning processes, establishing a theoretical foundation for LMM driving dynamics. Beyond the theoretical mechanisms, we further demonstrate that LMM exhibits efficient heat and mass transfer capabilities, paving the way for applications in controlled transport systems and autonomous robotics.