Beyond single scaffolding: a multidimensional scaffolding framework for flow-driven Game-Based Learning

Meta-analytic evidence indicates Game-Based Learning (GBL) to be beneficial for enhancing learning motivation and promoting knowledge construction, with the design and provision of scaffolding within games playing a critical role in enhancing learning outcomes. How to simultaneously foster learners' flow and learning remains a significant challenge in GBL scaffolding design; insufficient or inappropriate scaffolding may negatively impact both the gaming experience and learning outcomes. Recent meta-analyses have found that GBL has a moderate-to-large effect on cognitive outcomes, but the effect sizes show high heterogeneity. Furthermore, no significant improvement was observed in metacognitive outcomes. This imbalance may stem from the limitations of GBL research approaches that focus primarily on a single type of scaffolding. As GBL is a highly interactive and complex learning process, research on multidimensional scaffolding mechanisms has garnered increasing attention in recent years for its potential to enhance GBL effectiveness; however, there is currently a lack of systematic theoretical foundations and design guidelines. This study is a perspective article. Based on recent empirical research on GBL scaffolding, this study proposes a theoretical framework for Multidimensional Scaffolding in Game-Based Learning (MDS-GBL) in accordance with the characteristics of multidimensional forms of Flow Theory and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and presents a practical framework for scaffolding design and assessment. This study also draws on the results of recent empirical research on multidimensional scaffolding to support the proposed theoretical framework and presents three design principles for multidimensional scaffolding to serve as a reference for researchers and designers.