How School-Based Interventions Shape the Developing Brain during 3-12 Years: A Systematic Review and Exploratory...

The effects of school-based interventions (SBIs) on children's neurodevelopment are poorly synthesized. This systematic review integrates neuroscientific evidence on how structured educational activities influence brain development in children aged 3-12 years. Following PRISMA guidelines, we identified 17 empirical studies (published 2014-2025) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or magnetoencephalography (MEG). Of these, 8 studies were included in a random-effects meta-analysis and all 17 in a thematic synthesis. The meta-analysis revealed a preliminary association between SBIs and reduced amygdala activity during stress regulation tasks (r = -.28, 95% CI [-.50, -.02]), based on two studies, which should be interpreted as exploratory rather than confirmatory. No significant pooled effect for executive function, likely due to high heterogeneity. Thematic analysis distinguishes between mechanisms of plasticity and markers of intervention effectiveness: the first three characterize intra-individual mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity, including (1) executive function interventions engaged prefrontal networks through both increased recruitment and enhanced neural efficiency; (2) socio-emotional programs modulated limbic-prefrontal circuits; (3) language and auditory programs shaped sensory-specific electrophysiological markers and cortical specialization; and the fourth theme identifies a neural marker of the effective process of intervention delivery, demonstrating that (4) teacher-child inter-brain synchrony was positively correlated with learning outcomes. By integrating findings across neural, cognitive, and affective domains, this review provides a conceptual framework linking pedagogical practices to neural plasticity and advances the understanding of the neurofunctional pathways through which educational experiences shape the developing brain.