Intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of young children's frustration: A person-specific, dynamic approach

Young children may draw on both intrinsic physiological systems and extrinsic caregiver support to manage frustration. While regulation is often conceptualized as feedback-control processes, there has been limited empirical evidence on how they unfold in real time. Taking a person-specific, dynamic network approach, we examined whether parasympathetic changes and maternal responsiveness serve as active regulators that effectively dampen children's regulatory demands (reflected in sympathetic arousal and challenging behaviors) on a moment-to-moment basis during a frustration challenge. Data from 139 mother-child dyads (30-60 months; 48% female; 94% White; data collected June 2017-December 2019 in central Pennsylvania, U.S.) revealed that parasympathetic responses can function as real-time regulators through both dynamic increases and decreases across children; physiological regulation was related to better effortful control (standardized coefficient β = .22). Parental regulation primarily modulated challenging behaviors and was less evident among children with greater negative affectivity and externalizing risks (βs = -.19 and -.22). Findings demonstrate how children's self-regulation emerges from heterogeneous, dynamic systems where intrinsic and extrinsic processes operate to maintain homeostasis. By linking micro-level regulation dynamics with children's emotional and behavioral characteristics, the findings further highlight the value of capturing active, unfolding regulation patterns for understanding early functioning strengths and risks.