Effects of Hydrochar Application on Soil Cadmium Immobilisation and Foxtail Millet Growth

Cadmium (Cd) not only significantly threatens crop growth and food safety but also degrades soil quality and reduces microbial activity. Hydrochar is a carbon-rich material derived from biomass via hydrothermal carbonisation, due to its large specific surface area and abundant surface functional groups, shows great potential for immobilisation remediation of Cd-contaminated soils. We determined hydrochar's (1) optimal application conditions for soil Cd immobilisation and (2) regulatory effects on foxtail millet growth and development, photosynthesis, antioxidant enzyme activity, resistance gene expression and Cd accumulation. Hydrochar was prepared at two temperatures (240 and 160 °C) and applied at two concentrations (1% and 2%). Hydrochar application reduced soil available Cd by 4.59-10.09% and shifted Cd fractions from acetic acid-extractable to residual forms. Soil organic matter (SOM) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) increased. Hydrochar application increased plant antioxidant enzyme activity, downregulated SiNRAMP5 and SiHMA2 and upregulated SiHMA3, SiPCS1 and SiMT2. Hydrochar prepared at 240 °C and applied at a 2% concentration exhibited the highest efficiency in immobilising Cd, enhancing plant photosynthesis and antioxidant defence, activating soil microorganisms and increasing SOM and MBC, offering a promising remediation strategy for weakly alkaline Cd-contaminated farmland in northern China.