Nationwide sustainability assessment of PFAS treatment in U.S. water utilities

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose an unprecedented challenge for US drinking water systems as new national regulations mandate their removal. While granular activated carbon (GAC) and ion exchange (IX) resins are widely applied, their economic and environmental sustainability under diverse real-world conditions remains uncertain. Here we leverage a quantitative sustainable design framework (integrated techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment) to evaluate GAC and IX performance across utilities nationwide. Through uncertainty and sensitivity analyses, we identify utility size, water types (e.g., groundwater and surface water), and PFAS chain length as the dominant drivers of cost and environmental impacts. IX consistently shows lower global warming potential than GAC, though treatment of short-chain PFAS significantly increases costs. Water quality, especially total organic carbon, affects treatment performance and can change cost and environmental impacts for GAC. Results highlight disproportionate burdens on small and rural systems and the trade-offs inherent in technology selection. This work provides actionable insight for utilities and policymakers, enabling more equitable and sustainable strategies for meeting emerging PFAS standards.