Actual versus potential shock in making shock situations function as negative reinforcers

The relative importance of potential and actual shocks in making shock situations function as negative reinforcers was studied. Shocks were scheduled to occur at the same rate during two stimuli. During one, squirrel monkeys could avoid the shocks; during the other, they were unavoidable. For the two stimuli the potential rate of shocks was the same, but the actual rate was lower during avoidance because of avoidance responding. Fixed-ratio responding was maintained by the change from unavoidable shock to avoidance, indicating that the change was reinforcing when it resulted in a reduction in actual shock rate with no reduction in potential shock rate. Further increases in the rate of potential shock during avoidance had little effect upon the fixed-ratio responding until the rate was increased to the point that the actual shock rate during avoidance was comparable with that during unavoidable shock. At that point, the fixed-ratio response rate decreased nearly to zero. These findings show that actual shocks are more important than potential shocks in determining whether or not a shock situation will function as a negative reinforcer; this explains why the change from unavoidable shock to avoidable shock is reinforcing.