Pain perception and alleviation in animals

In the last 2 decades there have been substantial advances in our knowledge of the scientific basis of the mechanisms of pain. Nociceptors or pain receptors are widespread in the skin and tissues of animals; chemical mediation of nociceptor excitation may provide a key for understanding the peripheral phenomena related to pain. The expression of pain in animals involves multiple ascending and descending branches, as well as specialized pain-signaling mechanisms in the spinal cord. The importance of these different pathways varies with species and circumstances. Endogenous neural systems in the brain stem and forebrain including both opioid and nonopioid mechanisms may modulate the central transmission of nociceptive signals in animals. Noxious stimuli mediate a variety of different functions; each animal has a consistent response to noxious stimuli or a consistent pattern of escape from pain. As we better understand the mechanisms of pain, the humane treatment and alleviation of pain in experimental animals can be placed on a much firmer scientific basis.