[The theory of germ layers: the debatable aspects]

Data on early embryonic development of animals provided the basis for the following conclusions. In most (if not in all) species, germinal layers are not primitive structures recapitulating the initial organs of ancestral forms. The initial cell differentiation in the embryo is not directly associated with gastrulation, and the common concept of a fundamental relationship between germinal layer formation and cell differentiation is erroneous. Specification of cell types during early development and morphogenetic movements during gastrulation are relatively autonomous processes controlled by different genetic systems. The formation of germinal layers during individual development of different multicellular animals can be understood taking into account that segregation of cell layers is an essential element of epithelial morphogenesis. Movement of cells and cell layers during gastrulation is a specific manifestation of a general morphogenetic principle.