The cerebral regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory functions

Respiratory and cardiovascular control systems require the integrity of brain structures at many levels of the neuraxis, extending from neocortical sites to the spinal cord. The widespread distribution of neural sites reflects the multiple roles served by respiratory musculature and the close integration of breathing and cardiovascular reflexes. Descending influences to brainstem regions controlling respiration include projections from limbic and other structures that mediate affective and other nonmetabolic drives, as well as activity of classic motor systems. Disturbances in breathing and cardiac control, particularly disorders associated with sleep or emotional behavior, may result from dysfunction of either nonmetabolic pathways or traditional respiratory structures.