Renal imaging techniques

The ancient approach to obtain an image of the kidneys (and other internal organs) was 'section-inspection-imaging' by drawing, painting, sculpturing, and modelling. The present study follows chronologically the development and use of sectioning techniques from ancient (often forbidden) methods to modern microdissection and maceration of silicone-rubber-injected tubules. Inspection evolved from the use of the naked eye to magnifying lenses, microscopes and finally electron microscopy. Pertinent examples such as the description of the kidneys as the site of urine formation, the visualization of loop structures in the renal medulla and the imaging of tight junction strands are discussed. Inspection or visualization of renal structure and function has been revolutionized by modern noninvasive techniques, such as X-ray imaging, imaging by radioisotopes, ultrasound, computer tomography and nuclear magnetic resonance. Pertinent examples are given demonstrating the potency of the various techniques. The contribution of computerized data evaluation is discussed. The development of micropuncture and microperfusion techniques has opened the field for direct imaging not only of renal (sub)structural details but also of functional parameters such as transtubular reabsorption rates, single glomerular capillary filtration and conductance of the paracellular pathway. We focus particularly on techniques specifically designed to visualize renal hemodynamic and transport parameters.