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Updated: Jul 19, 2026

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test
Published on: April 27, 2016
Endothelial cell dysfunction, injury and death
1The Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 295 Congress Avenue, Room 454, New Haven, CT 06510, USA. Jordan.pober@yale.edu
Abstract:
Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) perform a number of functions required to maintain homeostasis. Inflammation can cause EC injury and death which disrupt these processes and result in endothelial dysfunction. Three common mediators of EC injury in inflammation are macrophage-derived cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF); neutrophil-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL). Here we describe the distinct but overlapping biochemical pathways of injury elicited by these different agents.
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