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Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Cushing Syndrome I: Introduction

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Cushing syndrome refers to the collection of clinical manifestations that arise when tissues are exposed to excessive amounts of cortisol or cortisol-like medications over an extended period. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, regulates metabolism, immune responses, and the body’s adaptation to stress. When its concentration remains chronically elevated, these physiological pathways become dysregulated, resulting in the characteristic features of the syndrome.Exogenous...

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Hormones, the biochemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, are pivotal in regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Each hormone's balance is crucial; imbalances can lead to significant physiological disruptions. Major hormones include oxytocin, cortisol, epinephrine, estrogen, testosterone, thyroxine, growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon.
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

Cushing Syndrome II: Pathophysiology

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Cortisol production is normally governed by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which maintains hormonal balance through tightly regulated feedback mechanisms. Disruption of this regulatory system is central to the development of Cushing syndrome, whether the excess cortisol originates from external medications or internal pathology. Persistent cortisol elevation alters metabolism, immune function, and endocrine signaling, producing the characteristic clinical features of the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 14, 2026

X-Ray Visualization of Intraductal Ethanol-Based Ablative Treatment for Prevention of Breast Cancer in Rat Models

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Etiological diagnosis of hyperprolactinemia.

C Cortet-Rudelli¹, R Sapin, J-F Bonneville

¹Clinique Linquette, CHRU de Lille, 6, rue du Professeur-Laguesse, 59037 Lille cedex, France. c-cortet@chru-lille.fr

Annales D'Endocrinologie

|May 26, 2007

Summary

Hyperprolactinemia diagnosis requires careful evaluation to distinguish prolactin adenomas from other causes. Hypothalamic-pituitary MRI is key, especially for high prolactin levels, guiding appropriate patient management.

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X-Ray Visualization of Intraductal Ethanol-Based Ablative Treatment for Prevention of Breast Cancer in Rat Models

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Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

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Published on: January 17, 2018

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Radiology
Medical Diagnostics

Background:

Hyperprolactinemia is a common endocrine disorder with diverse causes.
Prolactin-secreting tumors (prolactinomas) are the most frequent neoplastic etiology.
Accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective management and to rule out other conditions.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline a diagnostic strategy for hyperprolactinemia.
To emphasize the role of hypothalamic-pituitary MRI in identifying prolactinomas.
To differentiate between tumoral and non-tumoral causes of elevated prolactin levels.

Main Methods:

Review of diagnostic measures for hyperprolactinemia.
Emphasis on history-taking, drug review, and associated endocrine conditions.
Detailed description of hypothalamic-pituitary MRI techniques (T1/T2 weighted, gadolinium contrast).

Main Results:

Marked hyperprolactinemia (>10x ULN) strongly suggests prolactin adenoma, warranting early MRI.
Moderate hyperprolactinemia requires a systematic approach to exclude non-tumoral causes before imaging.
MRI findings, including dynamic tests and contrast enhancement, aid in diagnosing micro- and macroprolactinomas and differentiating from pituitary hyperplasia.

Conclusions:

A rational diagnostic plan is essential for hyperprolactinemia, especially with moderate elevations.
Hypothalamic-pituitary MRI is the gold standard for morphological examination of suspected prolactinomas.
Careful image analysis is critical for accurate diagnosis and management of hyperprolactinemia.