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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 10, 2026

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Published on: June 9, 2023

A rare case of thyroid haemangiosarcoma.

Paolo Del Rio¹, Simona Cataldo, Lucia Sommaruga

¹Department of Surgical Science, Unit of General Surgery and Organ Transplantation, University of Parma, Via Gramsci, 14, 43100 Parma.

Chirurgia Italiana

|November 21, 2007

Summary

Epithelioid haemangiosarcoma is a rare thyroid cancer with variable incidence. Diagnosis is challenging due to overlapping markers, and prognosis remains poor.

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Area of Science:

Oncology
Pathology

Background:

Haemangiosarcoma incidence in thyroid lesions varies (2-10%), particularly in the Alpine region.
This vascular tumor exhibits specific endothelial markers (CD 31, CD 34, FVIII).

Observation:

Immunochemistry shows co-expression of cytokeratins and epithelial membrane antigen, with occasional loss of thyroglobulin.
Distinguishing it from anaplastic carcinoma or endothelial sarcoma is difficult.
A rare case of epithelioid haemangiosarcoma in an elderly woman with contralateral papillary cancer is presented.

Findings:

The case highlights diagnostic challenges in classifying thyroid neoplasms.
Immunohistochemistry results can be ambiguous, complicating diagnosis.

Implications:

This rare tumor has a poor prognosis, emphasizing the need for further case reports.
Accurate classification is crucial for appropriate patient management and treatment strategies.