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pH Scale

pH Scale

Hydronium and hydroxide ions are present both in pure water and in all aqueous solutions, and their concentrations are inversely proportional as determined by the ion product of water (Kw). The concentrations of these ions in a solution are often critical determinants of the solution’s properties and the chemical behaviors of its other solutes. Two different solutions can differ in their hydronium or hydroxide ion concentrations by a million, billion, or even trillion times. A common means of...

The Small x Assumption

The Small x Assumption

If a reaction has a small equilibrium constant, the equilibrium position favors the reactants. In such reactions, a negligible change in concentration may occur if the initial concentrations of reactants are high and the Kc value is small. In such circumstances, the equilibrium concentration is approximately equal to its initial concentration. This estimation can be used to simplify the equilibrium calculations by assuming that some equilibrium concentrations are equal to the initial...

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

Acids and bases play several important roles in biology. The pH of a biological system can significantly impact the function of biological molecules, including enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids. For example, enzymes have optimal pH ranges for their activity, and changes in pH can denature or alter their structure, affecting their function. Acids and bases also play a crucial role in cellular signaling and communication. The pH of the extracellular fluid around cells can influence the...

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Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred from one chemical species to another. Such reactions are of central importance to numerous natural and technological processes, ranging from the chemical transformations within cells or lakes and oceans to the industrial-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other substances essential to the society.

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Certain organic substances change color in dilute solution when the hydronium ion concentration reaches a particular value. For example, phenolphthalein is a colorless substance in any aqueous solution with a hydronium ion concentration greater than 5.0 × 10−9 M (pH < 8.3). In more basic solutions where the hydronium ion concentration is less than 5.0 × 10−9 M (pH > 8.3), it is red or pink. Substances such as phenolphthalein, which can be used to determine the pH of a solution, are called...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 23, 2026

Comparing Bibliometric Analysis Using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science Databases

Comparing Bibliometric Analysis Using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science Databases

Published on: October 24, 2019

[Neutralizing science citation index as an academic evaluation system].

Xiu-Hua Liu¹, Chao-Shu Tang

¹Department of Pathophysiology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China.

Sheng Li Ke Xue Jin Zhan [Progress in Physiology]

|May 5, 2009

Summary

The Science Citation Index (SCI) is widely used but often misused to evaluate individual research papers. This review examines SCI

Area of Science:

Bibliometrics and scientometrics
Scientific publishing
Research evaluation

Context:

Thousands of research papers are published annually, necessitating quality evaluation.
The Science Citation Index (SCI) is a citation-based metric used for journal ranking.
SCI's adoption in China fostered international collaboration and domestic S&T development.

Purpose:

To analyze the historical and current use of SCI for evaluating scientific papers.
To discuss objective considerations of SCI and alternative evaluation practices.
To suggest improvements for domestic scientific journals and academic evaluation systems.

Summary:

This review critically examines the application of the Science Citation Index (SCI) in evaluating scientific research.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 23, 2026

Comparing Bibliometric Analysis Using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science Databases

Comparing Bibliometric Analysis Using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science Databases

Published on: October 24, 2019

It addresses the misuse of SCI, particularly its impact factor, for assessing individual paper quality.

The article explores objective approaches to SCI and emerging research evaluation methods.

Impact:

Highlights the limitations of using SCI and impact factors for individual research assessment.
Proposes enhancing the quality and global impact of domestic scientific journals.
Advocates for improving the academic evaluation system to foster S&T development.