Induction of intestinal lymphoid tissue formation by intrinsic and extrinsic signals

Since the discovery of inducer cells as a separate lineage for organogenesis of Peyer's patches in the small intestine of fetal mice, a lot of progress has been made in understanding the molecular pathways involved in the generation of lymphoid tissue and the maintenance of the lymphoid architecture. The findings that inducer cells also exist in adult mice and in humans, have a lineage relationship to natural killer cells, and can be stimulated during infections highlight their possible role in establishing innate and adaptive immune responses. Novel concepts in the development of intestinal lymphoid tissues have been made in the past few years suggesting that lymphoid organs are more plastic as previously thought and depend on antigenic stimulation. In addition, the generation of novel lymphoid organs in the gut under inflammatory conditions indicates a function in chronic diseases. The present review summarizes current knowledge on the basic framework of signals required for developing lymphoid tissue under normal and inflammatory conditions.