Pedagogical effect of action on arithmetic performances in Wynn-like tasks solved by 2-year-olds

Previous studies have provided evidence of interference due to a language-default mode (i.e., the singular/plural opposition) in 2-year-old children when solving arithmetic problems using a traditional onlooker method. However, an action-based method could help to bypass this language bias. In particular, when an arithmetic problem is presented to the children by the experimenter (onlooker mode) or realized by the children themselves (actor mode), performances are better with the latter. Thus, an experimental procedure based on "math in action" allows a brain-and-mind shift from a global language-bias (singular/plural) strategy to an exact numerical strategy. In this framework, we examined whether the exact numerical strategy induced by the actor method remains operational when children had to subsequently solve the same arithmetic problem using the traditional onlooker method. Results from 112 children suggest that this pedagogical effect of action bypasses the interference from language in onlooker mode after an initial confrontation of the problem in actor mode. This enduring embodiment effect has important implications for cognitive and preschool assessment in toddlers.