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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

The Parathyroid Glands

The Parathyroid Glands

The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by producing...

Structures of the Endocrine System

Structures of the Endocrine System

The intricate framework of the endocrine system encompasses a diverse array of glands, with their target tissues and organs strategically distributed throughout the body. Central to this network are the endocrine glands, specialized structures that lack ducts and release hormones directly into the interstitial fluid. Notably, the hypothalamus, a vital neuroendocrine organ situated in the brain, governs neural functions and serves as a potent source of hormonal regulation. Near the hypothalamus...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 14, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

The thyroid and the gut.

Ellen C Ebert¹

¹Department of Medicine, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ, USA. ebertec@umdnj.edu

Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology

|March 31, 2010

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Thyroid disorders significantly impact the gastrointestinal system, causing varied symptoms from motility changes to digestive issues. Treatment of the underlying thyroid condition typically resolves these gastrointestinal manifestations.

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Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Published on: March 17, 2023

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Last Updated: Jun 14, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Published on: March 17, 2023

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Gastroenterology
Internal Medicine

Background:

Thyroid disease is prevalent and affects multiple gastrointestinal organs.
Manifestations range from esophageal motility disorders in hypothyroidism to accelerated transit in hyperthyroidism.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the diverse gastrointestinal manifestations of thyroid disease.
To correlate these symptoms with specific thyroid conditions like hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid cancer.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on thyroid disease and its gastrointestinal effects.
Correlation of clinical presentations with underlying pathophysiology.
Discussion of diagnostic modalities such as MRI and CT scans.

Main Results:

Hypothyroidism (e.g., Hashimoto disease) can cause dysphagia, delayed gastric emptying, bacterial overgrowth, constipation, and ascites.
Hyperthyroidism (e.g., Graves' disease) is associated with accelerated gut transit, diarrhea, and steatorrhea.
Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (MCT) can cause diarrhea due to hormonal factors. Autoimmune gastritis is linked to both hypo- and hyperthyroidism.

Conclusions:

Gastrointestinal symptoms in thyroid disease stem from altered motility, autoimmune gastritis, or direct compression.
Effective management of thyroid dysfunction is key to resolving associated gastrointestinal problems.