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Related Concept Videos

Phase II Conjugation Reactions: Overview01:14

Phase II Conjugation Reactions: Overview

Conjugation, a key component of phase II biotransformation reactions, is a vital process in drug detoxification. It involves transferring endogenous substances like glucuronic acid, sulfate, and glycine to drugs or their metabolites formed in phase I reactions. These conjugation reactions, often catalyzed by specific enzymes, transform potentially harmful metabolites into inactive, water-soluble forms easily excreted in urine or bile. By enhancing polarity and eliminating pharmacological...
Mechanism of Conjugation01:19

Mechanism of Conjugation

Bacterial conjugation is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer that enables the exchange of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct contact. This process is facilitated by a donor cell carrying a conjugative plasmid, which encodes genes necessary for pilus formation, DNA replication, and transfer. The conjugative plasmid plays a central role in initiating and executing the transfer of genetic material.The tra region of the conjugative plasmid encodes proteins responsible for...
Phase II Reactions: Miscellaneous Conjugation Reactions01:19

Phase II Reactions: Miscellaneous Conjugation Reactions

Phase II biotransformations are detoxification mechanisms that conjugate xenobiotics with endogenous substances, neutralizing their toxicity.
A key example involves the conjugation of cyanide ions, which impair cellular respiration and alter hemoglobin into non-oxygen-carrying cyanmethemoglobin. To neutralize this threat, a sulfur atom from thiosulphate is transferred to the cyanide ion, catalyzed by the enzyme rhodanese, resulting in an inactive compound called thiocyanate. The production of...
Drug Metabolism: Phase II Reactions01:14

Drug Metabolism: Phase II Reactions

Phase II reactions are essential for the detoxification and elimination of drugs from the body. These reactions involve the conjugation of parent drugs or their phase I metabolites with endogenous molecules, resulting in more hydrophilic drug conjugates. The primary conjugation reactions in this phase are sulfation and glucuronidation. Both sulfation and glucuronidation typically produce biologically inactive metabolites. However, in some cases involving prodrugs, active metabolites may be...
Conjugate Addition (1,4-Addition) vs Direct Addition (1,2-Addition)01:27

Conjugate Addition (1,4-Addition) vs Direct Addition (1,2-Addition)

α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds with two electrophilic sites, the carbonyl carbon, and the β carbon, are susceptible to nucleophilic attack via two modes: conjugate or 1,4-addition and direct or 1,2-addition.
Conjugate addition results in a thermodynamically stable product. The reaction retains the stronger C=O bond at the expense of the weaker C=C π bond. The process is slow as the β carbon is less electrophilic than the carbonyl carbon.
Direct addition products are formed faster owing to...
Conjugate Addition to α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds01:09

Conjugate Addition to α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds

α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds are molecules bearing a carbonyl and alkene functionality in conjugation with each other. The conjugation in the molecule leads to three resonance structures. The hybrid form exhibits two probable electrophilic sites: the carbonyl carbon and the β carbon.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Synthesis and Bioconjugation of Thiol-Reactive Reagents for the Creation of Site-Selectively Modified Immunoconjugates
08:47

Synthesis and Bioconjugation of Thiol-Reactive Reagents for the Creation of Site-Selectively Modified Immunoconjugates

Published on: March 6, 2019

Recent developments in oligonucleotide conjugation.

Yashveer Singh1, Pierre Murat, Eric Defrancq

  • 1Départment of Pharmaceutics, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA. yashveer@rci.rutgers.edu

Chemical Society Reviews
|April 16, 2010
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Synthetic oligonucleotides (ONs) show therapeutic promise but face delivery challenges. Conjugation strategies are key to enhancing ON stability, specificity, and delivery for improved treatments.

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Genetic Incorporation of Biosynthesized L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and Its Application to Protein Conjugation
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Genetic Incorporation of Biosynthesized L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and Its Application to Protein Conjugation

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Efficient and Site-specific Antibody Labeling by Strain-promoted Azide-alkyne Cycloaddition
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Efficient and Site-specific Antibody Labeling by Strain-promoted Azide-alkyne Cycloaddition

Published on: December 23, 2016

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Synthesis and Bioconjugation of Thiol-Reactive Reagents for the Creation of Site-Selectively Modified Immunoconjugates
08:47

Synthesis and Bioconjugation of Thiol-Reactive Reagents for the Creation of Site-Selectively Modified Immunoconjugates

Published on: March 6, 2019

Genetic Incorporation of Biosynthesized L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and Its Application to Protein Conjugation
10:24

Genetic Incorporation of Biosynthesized L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and Its Application to Protein Conjugation

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Efficient and Site-specific Antibody Labeling by Strain-promoted Azide-alkyne Cycloaddition
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Efficient and Site-specific Antibody Labeling by Strain-promoted Azide-alkyne Cycloaddition

Published on: December 23, 2016

Area of Science:

  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Nanotechnology

Background:

  • Synthetic oligonucleotides (ONs) offer targeted gene expression inhibition for therapeutic and diagnostic uses.
  • Applications include antigene, antisense, RNA interference, ribozymes, DNAzymes, and aptamers for diseases and nanotechnology.
  • Clinical success is limited by ON instability, poor specificity, and inefficient delivery.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review recent advancements in oligonucleotide (ON) conjugation.
  • To discuss challenges and synthetic approaches for efficient ON conjugate synthesis.
  • To provide an overview of ON conjugate classes and their applications.

Main Methods:

  • Review of recent literature on oligonucleotide conjugation techniques.
  • Analysis of synthetic strategies for creating ON conjugates.
  • Categorization of ON conjugates and their functional applications.

Main Results:

  • Conjugation improves ON properties like stability, specificity, and delivery.
  • Various synthetic methods enable the creation of diverse ON conjugates.
  • ON conjugates show potential in therapeutics, diagnostics, and nanotechnology.

Conclusions:

  • Oligonucleotide conjugation is crucial for overcoming delivery and stability hurdles.
  • Advanced conjugation techniques are expanding the therapeutic and diagnostic potential of ONs.
  • ON conjugates represent a promising frontier in medicine and nanotechnology.