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Related Concept Videos

X-ray Imaging01:24

X-ray Imaging

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible "ray" would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an "X-ray" image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists worldwide quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-ray was widely...
X-ray Crystallography02:18

X-ray Crystallography

The size of the unit cell and the arrangement of atoms in a crystal may be determined from measurements of the diffraction of X-rays by the crystal, termed X-ray crystallography.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the change in the direction of travel experienced by an electromagnetic wave when it encounters a physical barrier whose dimensions are comparable to those of the wavelength of the light. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths about as long as the distance between neighboring...
Determination of Crystal Structures01:29

Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...
X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples01:10

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples

X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are  scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The  X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal crystal...
Imaging Biological Samples with Optical Microscopy01:18

Imaging Biological Samples with Optical Microscopy

Optical microscopy uses optic principles to provide detailed images of samples. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek designed the first compound optical microscope in the 17th century to visualize blood cells, bacteria, and yeast cells. In 1830, Joseph Jackson Lister created an essentially modern light microscope. The 20th century saw the development of microscopes with enhanced magnification and resolution.
In optical microscopy, the specimen to be viewed is placed on a glass slide and clipped on the stage...
Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy01:26

Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy

Phase-Contrast Microscopes
In-phase-contrast microscopes, interference between light directly passing through a cell and light refracted by cellular components is used to create high-contrast, high-resolution images without staining. It is the oldest and simplest type of microscope that creates an image by altering the wavelengths of light rays passing through the specimen. Altered wavelength paths are created using an annular stop in the condenser. The annular stop produces a hollow cone of...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 4, 2026

X-ray Dose Reduction through Adaptive Exposure in Fluoroscopic Imaging
08:30

X-ray Dose Reduction through Adaptive Exposure in Fluoroscopic Imaging

Published on: September 11, 2011

Revolution in x-ray optics.

N M Ceglio1

  • 1Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of California, P.O. Box 5508, Livermore, California 94550.

Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology
|February 11, 2011
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Recent advancements in x-ray technology, including brighter sources and new optical components, enable sophisticated soft x-ray optical systems for applications like lithography.

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X-ray Dose Reduction through Adaptive Exposure in Fluoroscopic Imaging
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Area of Science:

  • Physics
  • Optics
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • A technological revolution in x-ray generation, manipulation, and detection has occurred.
  • Laboratory x-ray source brightness has increased dramatically (8-12 orders of magnitude).

Purpose of the Study:

  • To discuss recent advancements in x-ray technology.
  • To explore the development of sophisticated soft x-ray optical systems.
  • To address the reasons behind these rapid developments.

Main Methods:

  • Development of advanced x-ray sources (lasers, synchrotron insertion devices).
  • Innovation in x-ray optical components (mirrors, lenses, beam splitters).
  • Advancements in x-ray imaging and detection technologies (microscopy, holography, waveguides, CCD arrays).

Main Results:

  • Significant improvements in laboratory x-ray source brightness.
  • Development of novel x-ray optical elements like diffraction-limited lenses and normal incidence mirrors.
  • Emergence of new x-ray applications including interferometers and projection optics for lithography.

Conclusions:

  • New x-ray technologies are enabling sophisticated soft x-ray optical systems.
  • These advancements pave the way for applications in areas such as x-ray lithography.
  • The rapid progress is driven by breakthroughs in source brightness and optical component development.