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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

Muscles of the Shoulder

Muscles of the Shoulder

The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
Anterior Thoracic Muscles
The anterior thoracic muscles include the serratus anterior, subclavius, and...

Muscles that Move the Arm

Muscles that Move the Arm

Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...

Muscles that Move the Forearm

Muscles that Move the Forearm

The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
Forearm Flexors
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

Published on: October 15, 2019

Shoulder and upper arm muscle architecture.

Steven L Peterson¹, Ghazi M Rayan

¹Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center and Integris Baptist Hospital, Oklahoma City, OK 73112, USA.

The Journal of Hand Surgery

|April 30, 2011

Summary

This study analyzed shoulder and upper arm muscle architecture, providing data for comparing muscle compatibility and performance. Key findings reveal differences in fiber length and force-generating capacity (PCSA) among these muscles.

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Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

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Vascularized Composite Upper Limb Allograft Harvesting for Proximal Arm Allotransplantation

Vascularized Composite Upper Limb Allograft Harvesting for Proximal Arm Allotransplantation

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Area of Science:

Anatomy
Biomechanics
Musculoskeletal Research

Background:

Understanding shoulder and upper arm muscle architecture is crucial for biomechanical analysis and clinical applications.
Comparative data on muscle properties can inform surgical techniques and rehabilitation strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the architectural characteristics of eleven shoulder and upper arm muscles.
To generate comparative data on muscle architecture for evaluating compatibility and relative performance.
To provide a foundation for muscle transfer procedures.

Main Methods:

Dissection of eleven shoulder and arm muscles in five fresh cadavers.
Measurement of resting muscle length, required excursion, muscle fiber length, pennation angle, and mass.
Calculation of physiologic cross-sectional area (PCSA) using established formulas.

Main Results:

Muscles were grouped into three categories based on fiber orientation.
Required excursion generally exceeded muscle fiber length, with exceptions noted for teres major and middle deltoid during abduction.
The middle deltoid exhibited a short fiber length, multipennate structure, and high PCSA.
Biceps and posterior deltoid had longer fiber lengths than triceps, but lower PCSA, indicating less force generation potential compared to the triceps.

Conclusions:

The study provides a direct comparison of architectural features for selected shoulder and upper arm muscles.
This data serves as a valuable resource for understanding muscle function and potential applications in reconstructive surgery.