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Updated: Jun 1, 2026

Laboratory Protocol for Genetic Gut Content Analyses of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Using Group-specific rDNA Primers
Published on: October 5, 2017
Feeding ecology of Xenoturbella bocki (phylum Xenoturbellida) revealed by genetic barcoding
Sarah J Bourlat1, Hiroaki Nakano, Marie Akerman
1Department of Biology, Darwin Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK Kristineberg Marine Research Station, Kristineberg 566, 45034 Fiskebäckskil, Sweden.
Abstract:
The benthic marine worm Xenoturbella is frequently contaminated with molluscan DNA, which had earlier caused confusion resulting in a suggested bivalve relationship. In order to find the source of the contaminant, we have used molluscan sequences derived from Xenoturbella and compared them to barcodes obtained from several individuals of the nonmicroscopic molluscs sharing the same environment as Xenoturbella. Using cytochrome oxidase 1, we found the contaminating sequences to be 98% similar to the bivalve Ennucula tenuis. Using the highly variable D1-D2 region of the large ribosomal subunit in Xenoturbella, we found three distinct species of contaminating molluscs, one of which is 99% similar to the bivalve Abra nitida, one of the most abundant bivalves in the Gullmarsfjord where Xenoturbella was found, and another 99% similar to the bivalve Nucula sulcata. These data clearly show that Xenoturbella only contains molluscan DNA originating from bivalves living in the same environment, refuting former hypotheses of a bivalve relationship. In addition, these data suggest that Xenoturbella feeds specifically on bivalve prey from multiple species, possibly in the form of eggs and larvae.
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