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Solvents

Solvents

A solvent is a substance, most often a liquid, that can dissolve other substances. Here, the substance being dissolved is called a solute. When a solvent and a solute combine, they form a solution - a homogenous mixture of both the solvent and the solute. Water is a universal biological solvent. Its polar structure allows it to dissolve many other polar compounds. The ability of water to dissolve is governed by a balance between water molecules binding to each other and binding to the solute.
A...

Solvating Effects

Solvating Effects

An understanding of the solvating effect helps rationalize the relation between solvation and acidity of the compound. In addition, this also explains the relative stability of conjugate bases for compounds with different pKa values. This lesson details, in-depth, the principle of solvating effects. The strength of an acid and the stability of its corresponding conjugate base are determined using pKa values. This observed relationship is a consequence of solvation, which is the interaction...

Esters to Carboxylic Acids: Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis

Esters to Carboxylic Acids: Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis of esters under acidic conditions proceeds through a nucleophilic acyl substitution. In the presence of excess water, the reaction proceeds in a reversible manner, forming carboxylic acids and alcohols.
During hydrolysis, the ester is first activated towards nucleophilic attack through the protonation of the carboxyl oxygen atom by the acid catalyst. The protonation makes the ester carbonyl carbon more electrophilic. In the next step, water acts as a nucleophile and adds to the...

Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration of Alcohols to Alkenes

Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration of Alcohols to Alkenes

In a dehydration reaction, a hydroxyl group in an alcohol is eliminated along with the hydrogen from an adjacent carbon. Here, the products are an alkene and a molecule of water. Dehydration of alcohols is generally achieved by heating in the presence of an acid catalyst. While the dehydration of primary alcohols requires high temperatures and acid concentrations, secondary and tertiary alcohols can lose a water molecule under relatively mild conditions.

Esters to Carboxylic Acids: Saponification

Esters to Carboxylic Acids: Saponification

Esters can be hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids under acidic or basic conditions. Base-promoted hydrolysis of esters is a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction in which esters react with an aqueous base, followed by an acid to give carboxylic acids. This reaction is also known as saponification because it forms the basis for making soaps from fats.
The reaction requires a base in stoichiometric amounts, which participates in the reaction and is not regenerated later. So, the base acts as a...

Ethers from Alkenes: Alcohol Addition and Alkoxymercuration-Demercuration

Ethers from Alkenes: Alcohol Addition and Alkoxymercuration-Demercuration

Overview
Ethers can also be prepared from alkenes through acid-catalyzed addition of alcohols and alkoxymercuration–demercuration.
Preparation of Ethers by Acid-Catalyzed Addition of Alcohol to Alkenes
The acid-catalyzed addition of alcohol to an alkene involves treating the alkene with an excess of alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst to form an ether under suitable conditions. The hydrogen will add to the less substituted carbon so that the nucleophile can attack the more substituted...

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Updated: May 29, 2026

Unraveling Entropic Rate Acceleration Induced by Solvent Dynamics in Membrane Enzymes

Unraveling Entropic Rate Acceleration Induced by Solvent Dynamics in Membrane Enzymes

Published on: January 16, 2016

Protease activation in glycerol-based deep eutectic solvents.

Hua Zhao¹, Gary A Baker, Shaletha Holmes

¹Chemistry Program, Savannah State University, Savannah, GA 31404, USA.

Journal of Molecular Catalysis. B, Enzymatic

|September 13, 2011

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) offer a green and cost-effective alternative for enzyme catalysis. Choline chloride-glycerol DESs efficiently supported immobilized proteases for transesterification reactions.

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Area of Science:

Biocatalysis
Green Chemistry
Enzyme Immobilization

Background:

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are emerging as sustainable alternatives to conventional ionic liquids.
Choline salt and glycerol mixtures form DESs that are biodegradable, inexpensive, and thermally stable up to 200 °C.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the transesterification activity of immobilized proteases in novel DESs.
To evaluate DESs as a medium for biocatalysis and protease-mediated biotransformations.

Main Methods:

Preparation of DESs using choline chloride or acetate and glycerol.
Immobilization of cross-linked proteases (subtilisin and α-chymotrypsin) on chitosan.
Assay of enzyme activity and selectivity in DES/water mixtures.

Main Results:

Cross-linked subtilisin in a 1:2 choline chloride/glycerol mixture with 3% water showed high activity (2.9 µmol min⁻¹ g⁻¹).
Excellent selectivity (98%) was achieved in the transesterification of N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine ethyl ester with 1-propanol.
DES systems demonstrated good fluidity and thermal stability for enzymatic applications.

Conclusions:

DESs are highly effective media for protease-mediated transesterification.
These findings support further research into DESs for biocatalysis with polar substrates.
DESs represent a promising green solvent system for enzyme immobilization and biotransformations.